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歐洲食人史

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本條目範圍限於當代歐洲地理範圍內，以及殖民時代在海船上或殖民地的歐洲人的食人現象。除饑荒和圍城中為了生存而食用屍體外，亦有為了復仇、醫療、異食癖以及黑魔法等目的的食人。在食人相關的文學作品中儘可能不包含對異國他者習俗的想像或投射，僅收錄記載歐洲人自己食人的橋段。本條目暫不將吸血納入食人範疇。如讀者有空，望能幫忙梳理語句。

史前食人

[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
  • 在北歐發現的尼安德特人遺骨上有類似同時代動物骨上的砍鑿痕跡，部分學者推測是同類相食的證據[1]
  • 在英國南部發現了有新石器時代的同類人相食的遺骸[2]。
  • 約在公元前4950年，德國線紋陶文化時期在今Herxheim附近一個興盛了幾百年的村落的考古記錄陡然消失，一些考古學家推測是整個村子的人被活祭或者吃掉了。[3][4]
A maxilla from Gough's Cave with cut marks near the teeth.
  • 在法國的Moula-Guercy洞穴中發現的距今10萬年的六具尼安德特人骨骼，被其他尼安德特人以能夠取出骨髓和腦組織的方式敲碎。在西班牙的Sidrón洞穴中出土的發現同樣顯示出exocannibalism的證據。[5]
  • 遺傳學研究顯示，在尼安德特人滅絕的同時發生了一次「強力的」自然選擇事件。[6] 基於數百項與僅通過食人行為傳播的kuru疾病相關的研究，研究者得出結論：已知僅用於抵抗類 kuru 疾病的 127V 基因，顯示出現代人類中廣泛存在食人行為的證據。若當時共存的現代人類與尼安德特人共同實行食人行為，有理論認為，這一基因會保護人類免受類 kuru 疾病影響，但卻導致尼安德特人的死亡，甚至可能導致其滅絕。[7]
  • 在英格蘭Somerset的Gough's Cave中發現的人類骨骼和頭骨顯示，大約在1.5萬年前，Stone Age時期的英國曾實行儀式性食人。[8][9]

希臘羅馬時代食人

[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
  • The young Athenian was presented to the phratry by his father, who swore that this was his son. The admission took place with a religious ceremony. The phratry sacrificed a victim, and cooked the flesh upon the altar. All the members were present. If they refused to admit the newcomer, as they had a right to do if they doubted the legitimacy of his birth, they took away the flesh from the altar. If they did not do this, if after cooking they shared with the young man the flesh of the victim, then he was admitted, and became a member of the association. [13]
  • 斯多亞哲學家Chrysippus贊成在葬禮儀式中食用逝去的親屬，並指出此類儀式在許多民族中很常見。[15]
  • 公元前88年，在米特拉達梯戰爭時期，羅馬共和國軍隊在蘇拉率領的部隊圍困雅典城，城中糧食缺乏出現了人相食。[16]除阿庇安的作品裏有描述之外，現代考古也在城市廣場發現了當時的約175具大人小孩遺骨和100具動物的遺骨有齒痕啃咬的痕跡[17]
  • 公園前52年，凱撒圍攻高盧城鎮阿萊西亞時，曾記載一名高盧貴族Critognatus建議效仿在公元前107～102年間高盧人抵抗條頓人和辛布里人入侵時的先例，將老弱病殘作為軍糧從而避免戰敗。所幸此次戰事中Critognatus的建議僅被當作最後手段，並未直接採用。[20]
  • 凱撒遇刺後公元前43年的後三巨頭時期，文學家西塞羅族人遭到迫害，其弟昆圖斯·西塞羅因為背叛西塞羅，被西塞羅前妻Pomponia折磨並指使其釋奴Philologus活活割下他的肉、炙烤並吃下。普魯塔克質疑這段記載真實性，但仍然收錄了自己的著作中。[21]
  • 公元41年，羅馬暴君卡利古拉遇刺後，一些行刺者或圍觀者生啖其肉。[22]
  • 據弗拉維奧·約瑟夫斯記載，公元後70年羅馬軍隊圍攻耶路撒冷會戰中，因戰亂造成城中軍民出現了人相食。[23][24]「母食其子」的表述手法在後世編年史家描述饑荒時常被挪用。[25]
  • 據塔西佗的阿古利可拉傳記載，約在公元後82年，被征入羅馬軍隊的日耳曼部落Usipetes發生兵變，偷走軍船在海上斷糧，用抽籤選船員分食，直到在蘇維匯人部落控制的地區靠岸出現了人相食 。[26][27]
  • 聖哲羅姆在Anti Jovinianus一文中聲稱不列顛的Attacotti部落把人的胸部和臀部視作美味佳餚。[29]
  • 408年西哥特首領亞拉里克圍困羅馬時截斷了台伯河的穀物輸送航線，失去了亞非利加行省糧食的羅馬城內當時有近80萬人口，據說出現了易子而食或者易妻而食的情況。亞拉里克得到贖金和人質後解除圍城，但在409年因東西羅馬的皇帝爭奪羅馬城，羅馬再度被封鎖並出現了求購人肉的情況。410年亞拉里克遭到行刺，認為是受西羅馬皇帝指使，盛怒之下再次折返圍困打算洗劫羅馬，但據基督徒作家哲羅姆記載，西哥特人入城之前，陷入瘋狂的羅馬居民就已經幾乎相食殆盡了。[30][31]
  • 410年左右，蘇維匯人部落趁意大利混亂時入侵伊比利亞時的劫掠造成了當地饑荒，出現了人相食。有父母親殺死子女、或鄰人互烹食。[32]
  • 503年波斯圍困拜占庭的阿米達城，城破後發現有婦女團伙在路上劫殺婦女兒童作為食物。波斯領軍貴族處死了殺人者，但仍舊准許饑民將已死的人肉和皮靴混起來烹飪。[33][34]
  • 536年，東哥特人統治的意大利饑荒，天主教早期教宗名錄中記載利古里亞地區有母親吃了她們自己的孩子。[35]537~538年的羅馬周邊、539年艾米利亞-羅馬涅地區也出現了類似記載。[36][37]

中世紀食人

[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
  • 在《不列顛諸王史》（Historia regum Britanniae）中，傑弗里·蒙茅斯（Geoffrey of Monmouth）講述了年輕的布賴恩（Brian）為救國王卡德沃隆（Cadwallon），在未能捕獲獵物的情況下，從自己大腿上割下一塊肉，獻給君主以供其充飢並療傷。 [39]
  • 698~700年的饑荒是愛爾蘭歷史學家Cormac O'Grada所發現的本國最早的人相食記載。[40]
  • 792—794歐洲地區饑荒期間出現了人相食。 [41]
  • 《Annales Mosellani》提到790年代初饑荒中出現食人現象（C.1.54），《Annales Xantenses》也記錄了860年代饑荒中的同類行為（C.1.192）。另有四份可能相互關聯的文本記述，在890年代中期饑荒中人們開始食用人類屍體。《Annales Besuenses》《Annales Augienses》《Annales Colonienses》強調基督徒被飢餓逼迫到「吃基督徒」，用來凸顯糧荒嚴重程度；《Richeri gesta Senoniensis ecclesiae》亦稱人在饑荒中被迫吃人（C.1.242, 248, 249, 252）。在860年代的饑荒中，《Annales sanctae Columbae Senonensis》還記載「男人和女人」互相殘殺以求果腹，以及在 Pont-sur-Yonne 有男子殺害一名女子，將其肢解，部分肉用鹽醃藏，其餘煮食給自己和兒子（C.1.189）。《Annales Engolismenses》同樣報道了該次危機中因食物而殺人（C.1.190），而《Annales Fuldenses》則記述在較輕的850年糧荒中，有男子幾乎要殺掉自己的兒子（C.1.149）。[42]
  • 錫拉庫落的陷落（878年）和聖薩巴斯小聖的不幸（10世紀末） 在馬其頓的巴西爾一世（867-886）統治君士坦丁堡的同時，拜占庭在西西里島的最後據點遭到了來自撒拉遜人的反覆進攻。因此，878年，在經歷了長達十個月的圍攻後，錫拉庫落被攻破。這一事件的責任有時被歸咎於皇帝反應不足，有時則被歸咎於救援艦隊指揮官的無能。這個事件在當地和東方的史料中留下了深刻的痕跡。為了重建事實，我們擁有一份似乎是一位被圍困者的敍述的文本，這位修道士和文法學家西奧多修斯是撒拉遜人的受害者和俘虜，他在一封寫給某位總主教萊昂的信中陳述了這一點。他在信中對城市的被洗劫表達了遺憾，使用了一種複雜的語言，將聖經的借用與古典的回憶交織在一起。他甚至毫不猶豫地提到了在被圍困者中由可怕的饑荒引起的人吃人的行為。雖然修辭之幕不允許我們還原這篇文章的真實創作條件，但它非常情感化的語調證明了一開始所注意到的：這一事件在當地社會中留下了深刻的印記。
  • 975年，巴黎饑荒期間出現了人相食。 [43]
  • 1030—1033泛歐饑荒期間，有大量人相食：盜匪在公路上劫殺旅人吃、旅人半夜被收留自己的住戶殺了吃掉、小孩子們被一兩個蘋果拐走當成食物吃掉，在市場上賣人肉的商販被處死後掩埋的人肉再次被饑民挖出來吃等等的出現了人相食紀錄。[44]
  • 1069—1070年征服者威廉的焦土戰術嚴重破壞了英國北部的農業，當地人口減少了75%，倖存者靠食人活下來。[45]一些現代學者認為這次北伐符合種族滅絕的定義[46][47]
  • 第一次十字軍東征時期，因戰亂饑荒，當地軍民與十字軍都有出現了人相食。如1098年冬季的邁阿賴努阿曼圍城戰。[48] 卡昂的拉多夫寫道，「在邁阿賴努阿曼，我們的軍隊將成年的異教徒放入鍋內煮；而兒童則被切碎後烤熟食用。」[49]同年的安條克圍城戰也有出現了人相食。有人[來源請求]認為後世傳說的被十字軍所不齒的食人的Tafurs同盟軍並不存在，只是為了為十字軍開罪而杜撰出來。
  • 《蘇格蘭人編年史》（Chronicon Scotorum）在1116年的記載中提到，在托爾德爾巴赫·奧·康丘拜爾（Toirdhealbach Ó Conchubhair）襲擊托蒙德（Thomond）之後，「春季爆發大饑荒，以至於人們為了食物出賣自己的兒子和女兒，甚至彼此相食，連狗也不放過。整個萊因斯特（Leinster）幾乎被清空，其居民因饑荒而四散流離到愛爾蘭各地。」[50]
  • 1138年初蘇格蘭的大衛一世入侵英格蘭時造成當地饑荒，出現了人相食。 [51]
  • 1204年法王亨利奧古斯都進攻英王在諾曼第的Gaillard城堡時，城堡守軍為了減少「無用的嘴」，把城堡內的難民分批趕出城外。圍攻軍隊一開始允許難民通過，但法王聽說後制止了這一行為，把難民趕回城堡消耗存糧，而守軍也拒絕再次開門，夾在攻守兩軍之間荒地的難民在野狗的皮毛都吃掉了之後，難民之間孕婦分娩，嬰兒瞬間就被分屍吃掉了。[52]
  • 1241年蒙古入侵期間，匈牙利出現了母食其子。[55]
  • 西班牙卡斯蒂利亞法規《Siete Partidas》中的一項規定，這是由卡斯蒂利亞國王阿方索十世頒布的一系列羅馬和日耳曼法律，並於1256年至1265年間制定。根據這項法令，封建義務優先於親子義務：在城堡中為領主服務的父親，如果缺少糧食，可以選擇吃掉兒子而不需徵得許可，而不是無許可就放棄這個位置。由此產生的父權的擴大為任何父親犯下相同行為提供了類似的理由，即為了自己的生存而殺死和吞食兒子：「因此，如果這可以為上帝而做，那麼也可以為自己而做"。[56]
  • 1279~1283年波西米亞因戰爭而土地拋荒，出現了母食其子的情況。[57]
  • 1305年，意大利蒙特費拉的男爵、Aleramici家族的喬萬尼一世病死，其私人醫生被懷疑下毒，在葬禮上被男爵的家臣刺死並分食其肉以儆效尤。[58]
  • 1311年，神聖羅馬帝國軍隊圍攻阿爾卑斯山南麓意大利的布雷西亞城時，布雷西亞市民靠食用帝國軍隊的屍體堅持守城。為了報復，帝國軍隊俘獲了布雷西亞的領導者Tebaldo Brusado，在城外遊街後斬首並分屍。憤怒的布雷西亞市民抓住皇帝的侄子並且吃掉了。 [59]
  • 同一世紀的一部文學作品介於歷史記憶與傳說之間：在《Ecerinis》中，這是一部於1313年編寫的悲劇，旨在敍述埃齊利諾三世·達·羅馬諾的生活、事跡和悲慘死亡，以隱約的意圖激勵當代人反對當時的斯卡利格家族統治，作者阿爾貝蒂諾·穆薩托描述了特雷維索地區暴君家族的滅絕，講述了被褻瀆的屍體、在父親眼前被活活燒死的少女和被屠殺的嬰兒：一個孩子被毆打頭部直到腦漿噴出，埃齊利諾的另一個年幼的侄子被一名持劍的男子割喉，其頭被釘在長矛上，而另一個人咬着他仍在跳動的肝臟[5]。在隨後的幾個世紀中，已知的案例顯著增加，由更有信譽的來源傳播。[60]
  • 在1315年-1317年的泛歐饑荒中，因缺少儲糧，受災荒的歐洲各國都出現了出現了人相食，有大量嬰幼兒和成人被吃掉[61][62][63]。食人現象至少出現在了英國、波蘭、西里西亞、利沃尼亞[64]以及食物短缺因戰爭而加重的愛爾蘭[65]。其中布里斯托市政編年史中提到有母食子夫食子人，獄友互相生吞活剝的慘狀[66]。
  • 1341年戰亂中的蘇格蘭，「飢餓的受難者被迫吞食最令人生厭的東西；其中一名名叫克里斯蒂安·克萊克（Christian Cleik）的惡徒與其妻子，以捕捉併吞食兒童的肉為生——他們用陷阱誘捕孩子，然後將其吃掉。這對可憐的食人惡魔最終被人發現，判罪並處以火刑。」[67]
  • In the twenty-third chapter of the ninth book, however, Boccaccio glosses over a well-known episode of anthropophagy that occurred during the uprising that broke out in Florence on 26 July 1343 against Walter of Brienne, Duke of Athens, sent by the House of Anjou to support the military recapture of the city.20 The riot was incited by the Adimari, Medici, Donati and Ruccellai families. With Walter barricaded inside his palace, the insurgents asked for the 『conservative’ (『conservatore’)Guglielmo d』Ascesi and his son to be surrendered to them in exchange for ending the siege. Thrown into the 『hands of the angry people’ the boy was killed and torn to pieces in front of his father, who soon suffered the same fate.21 Their shredded bodies were paraded around the city on spears and the most savage people 『ate their raw and cooked flesh』.22 This episode of anthropophagy is described in the chronicles by Giovanni Villani, a contemporary of the narrated events, and Marchionne di Coppo Stefani, who lived a generation later and was partly inspired by the work of his predecessor. Useful information can also be found in the Storie Pistoresi (Pistoia Stories).23
  • 米凱勒·達·皮亞察（Michele da Piazza）的編年史敍述。我們來到1337年的傑拉奇（Geraci），這座城市被Ventimiglia家族和Chiaromonte家族爭奪。由於與Palizzi家族的新爭端，後者是Chiaromonte家族的盟友，並得到了新君主彼得羅二世的支持，弗朗切斯科·文蒂米利亞（Francesco Ventimiglia）被標記為叛徒，被圍困在傑拉奇並被殺害 - 或者也許是在試圖逃離憤怒的市民時發生的意外死亡。然後，傑拉奇的居民對他進行了虐待，割斷他的手指，挖出他的眼睛，用石頭擊碎他的牙齒，用肉刀切割他的鬍鬚，直到他被「從一部分分裂到另一部分」，並且，編年史家補充說，一些人「吃掉了他的肝臟」。[68]類似的事件在1368年發生在蒙特普爾恰諾。在被圍困的城市內，詹姆斯·德爾·佩科拉（Giacomo del Pecora）。
  • 1358年法國北部扎克雷起義期間，有女貴族在被強暴後，被迫吃下被烤熟了的丈夫的肉。[71]
  • 類似的事件在1368年發生在蒙特普爾恰諾。在被圍困的城市內，詹姆斯·德爾·佩科拉（Giacomo del Pecora）堡壘，是城市的暴君，也是繼其兄尼科洛被趕走後的唯一的專制者。在城市的外圍，叛軍，得到錫耶納的支持，迫切要求衝破城牆。在2月4日，他們進入城市，得到蒙特普爾恰諾人的支持，他們俘虜了詹姆斯。編年史家多納托·迪·內里（Donato di Neri）敍述說，第二天「蒙特普爾恰諾的人民來到賈科莫監獄，用武力闖進去，然後用大量殘暴的行為將他剁成碎片，使他比野獸更殘忍，吃掉了他的肉」[12]。[72]
  • 1380年，法國南部的蒙彼利埃抗稅暴亂中，法王派遣的官僚被暴民分屍並食用。[73]
  • 1385年9月3日，意大利北部的費拉拉發生抗稅暴亂，男爵交出制定稅收政策的Tommaso da Tortona以保證自己的安全，暴亂者在憤怒中將Tommaso的心臟和肝臟挖出並吃掉，屍體剩下部分懸掛在港口。[74]
  • 歷史學家皮耶羅·坎波雷西（Piero Camporesi，1988年）講述了近代早期意大利貴族之間的激烈仇殺事件。在一起案例中，一名受害者被剖腹後，其心臟遭到咬食。第二起事件中，敍述者說道：「能將腸子碾碎在牙齒間的人才算幸運。」第三起則是一名男子在被折磨致死後遭到剖腹，其襲擊者啃咬他的內臟後，繼續將其「切成小塊以提取脂肪，因為他年輕，可能年約二十八歲，身材高瘦」。在坎波雷西看來，對受害者「年輕」與「體態」的強調，透露出襲擊者有意將脂肪出售給那些「藥劑師兼醫生」，後者認為這類脂肪「有益於所有神經系統疾病」。考慮到當時存在以人肉入藥的貿易，這一推論顯得極為可信。[75]
  • 1418年底到1419年初的魯昂圍城戰中，貓狗和老鼠都被吃完後，也出現了食人的傳聞。[76]
  • 1437年，意大利中部佩魯賈地區Acquapendente村的一個父親將誤殺了自己兒子的牧童殺死，烹煮其肝臟宴請其父後告知是他孩子的肉，引發了兩個家族之間的戰爭，一個月內死了36位男男女女。[77]
  • 1438年英法百年戰爭最後階段時，有編年史作者記載阿布維爾地區一名飢餓的農婦們將自己的孩子殺死後肢解並用鹽醃製，以備下次饑荒[78][79]。
  • 一位名叫帕斯夸萊·吉比洛蒂（Pasquale Gibilotti）的那不勒斯人稱其的父曾在1456年安茹王朝與阿拉貢王朝戰爭期間擔任那不勒斯國王阿方索軍中的軍需商。當時由於缺乏糧食，尤其是肉類，「雙方軍隊的軍需商在夜間偷偷從屍體上取下肉塊，用來製作各種菜餚，並賣給那些不幸的士兵。這種情況持續了很長一段時間而未被發現，因此該地區便感染上了那種疾病。」 [80]
  • 1476年的米蘭。這是關於吉安·加萊阿佐·瑪利亞·斯福爾扎（Gian Galeazzo Maria Sforza）的謀殺，他在前往Saint Stephen's Mass的途中被喬瓦尼·安德烈亞·蘭普尼亞尼（Giovanni Andrea Lampugnani）和他的同謀刺傷。刺客的命運也並不更好：當他試圖跑開時，他絆倒了，蘭普尼亞尼跌倒在地，被公爵的侍從追上並殺死。他的屍體立即受到褻瀆，被拖到他的家，懸掛在窗前，一隻腳懸在窗外，然後再次被拖到城市的各個地方，直到第二天。Gabriele Fontana的編年史還補充說，「一些市民咬斷了他的心臟，肝臟和手」[15]。[81]
  • 在弗爾利（Forlì）也發生了類似的事件，時間是1488年，這發生在卡特琳娜·斯福爾扎（Caterina Sforza）在她的丈夫吉羅拉莫·里亞里奧（Girolamo Riario）被謀殺後對數名陰謀者進行復仇的情況下。詳細敍述這一事件的是萊奧內·科貝利（Leone Cobelli），他是事件同時代的人，也是事件的直接見證者，站在弗爾利的領主一方。在成功鎮壓陰謀後，卡特琳娜·斯福爾扎對死者的迫害者實施了殘酷的司法手段。陰謀的領導者奧爾西兄弟的父親被捕並在子女逃亡後被殺害：將屍體捆綁在一個板上，以使頭部露在外面，然後將人吊在馬尾巴上拖着繞過廣場三次。然後屍體被切成碎片，內臟散落在地上：科貝利觀看着這場悲慘的景象，他說，一名士兵對被肢解的屍體進一步進行了殘酷的折磨，拔出心臟並咬了一口[16]。
  • 1494年，法軍入侵意大利，在圍困那不勒斯城期間，有商人將人肉賣給法軍。[82]
  • 在新世紀伊始，佩魯賈（Perugia）發生了一起同樣血腥的陰謀，成為新一輪食人事件的契機：這是被稱為「紅色婚禮」的血腥兄弟姐妹之爭，發生在1500年7月14日。Pompeo Pellini提供了有關這場大屠殺的描述，他於1523年出生在佩魯賈，是Baglioni家族的支持者。編年史家講述了一個故事，說在Astorre Baglioni與Lavinia Colonna的婚禮上，卡爾·迪·奧多·巴廖尼（Carlo di Oddo Baglione）與他的姑父傑羅拉莫·德拉·佩納（Girolamo della Penna）一起構思了一個滅絕所有他家族成員的殘忍計劃，殺死「一次所有的Guido和Ridolfo Baglioni以及他們所有的孩子」。在慶祝活動結束後，陰謀者入侵了宮殿。新婚的阿斯托雷還躺在新婚的床上，菲利普·迪·布拉奇奧（Filippo di Braccio）與他的幾名追隨者一起衝上去，給予阿斯托雷「死亡，他無法以任何方式自衛」。然後，菲利普·迪·布拉奇奧從死者的胸腔里拔出心臟，並狠狠地咬了一口，然後將裸體的屍體拋在街道中央[17]。
  • 1500年的Acquasparta，靠近托迪，由當時的事件所記載，被歸功於弗朗切斯科·馬圖蘭齊奧（Francesco Maturanzio）。證詞講述了維特洛佐·維泰利（Vitellozzo Vitelli），一位「教會的士兵」，被教皇派去解救托迪免受Altobello di Chiaravalle和Girolamo da Canale的統治。在攻克Acquasparta城後，Altobello在試圖逃跑時被攔截。在前往監獄的路上，一群憤怒的人群從警衛手中奪走了囚犯：「每個人都跑來想殺他」；屠夫的焦慮如此之大，以至於「因為急於行動，他們互相傷害」。對於這位「暴君」的屍體的食人行為如此激烈，以至於「他那可憐和貧窮的身體一點都沒有剩下」[18]。
  • 關於Pistoia歷史中一場與前述例子有所不同的另一場爭鬥，據其時代的歷史學家皮耶羅·瓦利恩蒂（Piero Vaglienti）的《他的時代的歷史》記錄，描述了這一事件，儘管他不是這些事件的直接見證者。這場爭鬥發生在1501年，是Panciatichi家族與Cancellieri家族之間的對抗的結果。在Serravalle躲避的Panciatichi家族受到了同族的背叛，並被撕成碎片：「有人拔出他們的心臟，用嘴咬並切成碎片」[19]。
  • 亞歷山大·索尼·賓恩（Alexander "Sawney" Bean）是蘇格蘭13～16世紀期間一個擁有48名成員家族的首領，傳說其性格粗暴懶散，成年後與一名據說會巫術的女子一起在海邊的一個洞穴居住，兩人一起生育很多子女，子女又之間近親亂倫，形成一個龐大的家族。整個家族依靠搶劫過往旅人、並食用被害人的屍體為生。後來因一次搶劫失敗被發現，整個家族被逮捕處死。參見索尼·賓恩詞條。

宗教改革時期食人

[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
  • In 1512 during the War of Combrai Coalition, chronicler Lapini recorded an example of the 『endless cruelties』 that he had heard in relation to the sack of Ravenna: a poor father had confined to a cave his five unmarried daughters. Unfortunately, he died along with all those who had notice of them so that the daughters could not get out by any way and also perished. When they were found, Lapini wrote, it was discovered that they had eaten each other’s arms in desperation.
  • 1514年7月21日，反抗馬扎爾人統治的特蘭西瓦尼亞僱傭兵首領György Dózsa被俘後受到酷刑，行刑者割下他的肉後將他的肉分給士兵、平民以及叛軍的其他戰俘，拒絕食用的人也被殺害食用[83]。
  • 1521年，法國的Pierre Burgot和Michel Verdun因謀殺以及狼化妄想症（lycanthropy）被處死前，招供說他們在和女巫團體簽訂契約後變身為狼人，殺死並食用了六個嬰兒。[84]
  • 1527年，在神聖羅馬帝國的新教徒軍隊洗劫羅馬期間，據稱有些人被迫吃下自己的生殖器。[85]
  • 1570年代俄羅斯在利沃尼亞戰爭期間，國內土地拋荒無人耕種造成饑荒，其中有不少食人的記載[86]。
  • When the Spanish sacked the Dutch city of Naarden in Holland in December 1572, around a hundred citizens seeking to escape into the snowbound fields were overtaken by Spanish soldiers, stripped naked, and hung on trees to freeze to death. And it was here that the invading armies, 「becoming more and more insane as the foul work went on,」 were said to have 「opened the veins of some of their victims, and drank their blood as if it were wine.」
  • 1572年聖巴托洛繆日大屠殺後，曾在巴西調查當地食人族的Jean de Lery痛心疾首地控訴新教徒殉難者的肉在市場上被販賣。[87][88]聽說此事的蒙田認為發生在法國的食人性質更加惡劣，因為巴西人好歹是吃敵對部落，而法國是鄰居甚至家人出於教派區別互相仇殺食用。[89]同期在新教徒控制的朗格多克，憤怒的新教徒將供奉在Lodeve大教堂的11世紀時殉教的天主教聖徒Fulcran的聖體用火槍打得稀爛後，把剩下部分在一次正式的宴會上模仿聖餐吃掉了。[90]
  • 1573年1月18日，法國"多勒的狼人"Gilles Garnier（英語：Gilles Garnier）因掐死四個兒童且食用他們的屍體的罪名被燒死。[91]
  • 1573年法國宗教戰爭期間天主教軍隊圍困胡格諾派的桑塞爾城時造成了城內饑荒，當老鼠和皮革都吃完了之後出現了食人現象，桑塞爾在居民人口僅剩下戰前20%時投降。[92]Jean de Léry, ministro a Sancerre durante l』assedio del 1573, narra di aver personalmente colto un』intera famiglia con le mani in pentola, intenta a bollire il corpo della figlia deceduta per nutrirsene. In quest』occasione, abbandonato il tollerante sguardo etnologico che lo stesso autore riserva ai costumi cannibalici delle popolazioni caraibiche, Léry evoca, al pari dei suoi contemporanei, l』ira divina e i ben noti precedenti biblici di Geremia e delle Lamentazioni. Ancora Jacques-Auguste de Thou, riguardo all』indigenza che colpiva Mosca nel 1605, allude all』assedio di Gerusalemme, descrivendo l』antropofagia materna a lui più prossima come una reiterazione (letteralmente un «rinnovarsi») di quella tragedia[36].
  • 大約在 1580 年，一名法國新教徒被天主教徒殺害並剖腹。隨後他的心臟被「切成碎塊、拍賣、在烤架上烤熟，最後被愉快地吃掉」。[93]
  • 1581年9月16日，德國連環殺手彼得·尼爾斯與其同夥因殺死並食用544人，其中包括為了黑魔法儀式而從剖開孕婦肚子後取出吃掉的數十個胎兒，被處以輪刑[94][95]。
  • 1585年那不勒斯一次暴動期間，有受害者在清洗內臟後被分屍掛在武器尖上，部分屍塊被暴動者生吃。[96]
  • 1586年，英格蘭駐法大使記述了當時的危機：「有兩位代表前來覲見國王，一位來自聖通日（Xaintonge），另一位來自佩里戈爾（Périgord），他們跪地懇求國王締結和平，憐憫其可憐的子民——這些人已困苦至極，不得不以板岩與堅果殼製成的麵包為食……饑荒之烈，以至佩里戈爾已有一名婦人吃掉了自己的兩個孩子，聖通日也發生了類似事件……已有成千上萬的人餓死，而那些尚存者也已困頓至極……像馬一樣以草充飢，最終死時口中仍含着青草。」[97]
  • 1589年10月31日，貝德堡的「狼人」彼得·斯頓普被控食人和巫術，在科隆被斬首。[98]
  • 1590年代泛歐饑荒期間，據說在匈牙利出現了母食其子的情況。[100]
  • 一名身份不明的男子（可能名為尼古拉·達蒙〔Nicolas Damont〕）於1598年在法國沙隆昂香檳（Châlons-en-Champagne）被處以火刑，罪名是謀殺了50名兒童。在他的住所中發現了這些兒童的遺骸，其中包括幾塊被部分食用的人肉。他承認自己在精神錯亂發作期間綁架、殺害並吃掉了這些受害者，但否認當局指控他在變身為狼人狀態下實施這些行為。[101]
  • 費恩斯·莫里森（Fynes Morison）記述了九年戰爭（1592–1602）末期愛爾蘭唐郡（County Down）因戰爭引發的饑荒：「特雷弗上尉（Captain Trevor）和許多駐紮在紐里（Newry）的正直紳士都可作證，有些老婦人在野外生火，許多清晨趕牛出門的孩童為取暖而前來，卻被這些老婦人伏擊、殺害並食用。最終，一位體格強壯的大女孩掙脫她們逃脫，將此事揭發。特雷弗上尉遂派兵查明真相，發現了孩童的頭骨和遺骨，並將這些老婦人逮捕，她們因犯下此事而被處決。」[102]
  • 在對「老巫婆」母題的一個反轉中，莫里森還記述了「一幅極其可怕的景象：三個孩子（其中年長者不超過十歲）正啃咬着他們死去母親的內臟——他們已靠着其母的屍體存活了整整二十天。」[103]
  • 1603年，一個叫Jean Grenier的法國年輕人自稱變成狼人時吃掉了50個在Saint-Sever地區失蹤的兒童。他被判狼人罪（lucanthropy）但因為年齡而僅承受了無期徒刑。[104]
  • 1610年，終結了內戰的法王亨利四世遇刺，兇手François Ravaillac被五馬分屍處死後，屍首被懷念亨利四世的民眾啖食。[105]
  • 波蘭-立陶宛軍隊趁俄羅斯混亂時期入侵，1612年俄羅斯人反攻，將波蘭立陶宛軍隊圍困在克里姆林宮期內，期間缺糧的軍隊靠互食人肉生存[106]。
  • 1617年法國權臣Concino Concini被意欲親政的路易十三派人刺殺，其屍體部分被吃掉。[107]
  • 三十年戰爭期間，Die Hungersnot war 1634/35 so groß, dass die Menschen nicht davor zurückschreckten, ihre toten Angehörigen zu verspeisen. Dem Bericht des katholischen Pfarrers Michael Lebhardt aus dem Dorf Agawang (Nähe Augsburg) zufolge handelte es sich bei der Anthropophagie nicht um eine Metapher, sondern um eine reale, der Verzweiflung entsprungene Überlebenspraxis, die als «Notkannibalismus» bezeichnet wurde (S 173). 另，萊茵河畔布賴薩鎮於1638年被圍困時，近郊方濟嘉布遣會的修道院出現了人相食。同年法軍在黎塞留命令下圍攻德法邊境的多勒時，城內亦出現了人相食。[108]同年被瑞典軍隊圍困在Tangermund地區的神聖羅馬帝國軍隊也出現了人相食。[109]Conditions deteriorated further after the Swedish defeat in the Battle of Nördlingen in September 1634. Imperial troops lost little time in placing Augsburg under siege. The siege lasted for almost half a year, into March 1635, and caused tremendous hardships. The poor suffered most: the chronicler Jacob Wagner tells of people who were reduced to eating animal skins, cats and dogs, and human corpses. The latter need not have been mere cliché, as gravediggers reported missing flesh from breasts and other body parts, and some citizens were seen gnawing on the bones of dead horses lying in the streets. The stench of the dead and dying hung heavily over the city. Meanwhile the Swedish garrison put relentless pressure on the local governing council, which was compelled to raise huge extraordinary contributions: the first levy alone equaled tax obligations for an entire year. Only the wealthy could be expected to meet such demands.36 1653年，一名西里西亞盜匪戰後被控在11年間殺死了250人，其中一次將被害孕婦的胎兒剖出來食用。[110]
  • 1627～1628年法國胡格諾派叛亂期間，黎塞留率領的天主教軍隊將胡格諾派據守的拉羅歇爾城圍困長達13個月，有目擊證人看到父母吃了自己孩子，守軍分兵看守墳場以防逝者屍體被挖出來吃掉。[111][112]
  • 1635年發生於南法Agen的船工暴亂中，據稱也有人被吃掉。[113]
  • In Germany in late 1636, in the village of Steinhaus, a woman allegedly lured a girl of twelve and a boy of five into her house, killed them both, and devoured them with her neighbor. In Heidelberg around this time, men were said to 「have digged out of the graves dead bodies, and…eaten them,」 while one woman 「was found dead, having a man’s head roasted by her, and the rib of a man in her mouth.」 Piero Camporesi tells of how, in Picardy during this conflict, the Jesuit G.S. Menochio saw several inhabitants so crazed with hunger that they 「ate their own arms and hands and died in despair.
  • 方濟會修士 Tarlach Ó Mealláin 在 1643 年愛爾蘭的阿爾斯特邦聯戰爭初期逃亡途中曾寫下 cín lae（日記）。當時正值饑荒廣泛蔓延，已有關於食人現象的報告。[114]
  • 據稱在 1652–1653 年的愛爾蘭，人們也曾在嚴重饑荒時期訴諸食人。[115]
  • 據稱在 17 世紀早期，加爾文派女伯爵、「殺人數量最多的女性連環殺手」Elizabeth Báthory曾強迫她的一些僕人食用自己的肉體。[116]
  • 1655 年 4 月，皮埃蒙特山谷的新教徒遭到天主教軍隊的屠殺。乍看之下，與此相關的暴行報道似乎近乎神話。然而，這些故事得到了法國一位高級軍官 Monsieur du Petit Bourg 的證實：有士兵吃下煮熟的人腦；欺騙同伴食用所謂的「肚雜」（實際上是新教受害者的乳房和生殖器）；並將一名少女架在長矛上活活烤死；另一案例中，肉因烤得太差而無法食用。但殺害了「丹尼爾·卡爾東（Roccappiata 的人）」的士兵，卻欣然在「平底鍋中煎熟」他的腦子後吃下；他們還取出了他的心臟，若非「被一些可憐人的部隊……從那邊過來嚇住」，也同樣會將其油煎。[117]

歐洲海船以及殖民地食人

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  • In 1563 French settlers from Charlesfort-Santa Elena Site are reported to have resorted to cannibalism while fleeing back to Europe.
  • 西班牙探險家阿爾瓦·努涅斯·卡韋薩·德·巴卡在一次航海中，遭到沉船事故，倖存船員分食死去船員的遺骸。[118]
  • 1609年在英屬北美最早的殖民地詹姆斯鎮的早期歲月，有考古證據證明糧食短缺出現了人相食 。[119][120][121]
  • A party of Cossacks under Vassili Poyarkov cannibalized the corpses of Siberian aborigines they had previously killed.[122]
  • 英格蘭女海盜船長夏洛特·德·貝里也食人，她在幾次海難中都是通過分食同伴的屍體活下來。[123]
  • 1727年，英國皇家海軍軍官威廉·柏伊斯William Boys年輕時在南海公司的販奴船盧克斯堡號工作時，船隻在大西洋中部失火併沉沒，和另外六個船員吃掉其他人活下來。[124][125]
  • In 1816, the French frigate Méduse ran aground off Mauritania, and 147 passengers and crew took to sea on a hastily constructed raft. In the chaotic 13 days before they were rescued, the occupants of the raft were driven to suicide, murder, and cannibalism; only 15 men survived the experience, five of whom died soon afterwards.
  • 約翰·富蘭克林於1818年首次進入北極地區，1819年至1822年間，富蘭克林帶領共20人的隊伍在加拿大西北地區沿科珀曼河進行陸上探險，因糧食不足，11人中途喪生，死於飢餓和凍傷，生還者靠地衣、樹皮維生和皮靴充飢，並開始分食罹難同伴。[126]
  • The Essex was sunk by a sperm whale in the Pacific Ocean, in 1820. Most survivors of Captain Pollard's ship spent 90 days in small whaling boats before being rescued. Seven of the members who died during the 90 days were documented to have been eaten, some after they died, two others who were sacrificed for that purpose after drawing lots. One of the small boats was found containing two survivors sucking on the marrow of a human bone. The tale of the Essex inspired Herman Melville to write his novel, Moby-Dick (1851).
  • 1822 年，愛爾蘭籍罪犯 Alexander Pearce 率領一批囚徒從范迪門地的麥夸里港刑罰殖民地逃跑。Pearce 在霍巴特附近被捕，並供稱在數周內，他與其他逃亡者陸續殺害並食用了同伴，而他是最後的倖存者。[127]
  • 1826年5月4日，英國殺人犯托馬斯·傑弗里斯因殺人並且食人，在塔斯馬尼亞被絞刑處決。[128][129]
  • 《The Acadian Recorder》1826 年 5 月 27 日的報道指出，Francis Mary 號船隻的倖存船員曾訴諸食人。[130]
  • 1837 年，一艘英國巡洋艦抓獲了葡萄牙雙桅縱帆船 Arrogante。該船試圖繞過英國封鎖，將數百名西非奴隸運往古巴。在航行途中，已有 60 多名非洲人因飢餓與疾病死亡，其餘者也嚴重營養不良。許多倖存者報告稱：「Arrogante 號上的一名非洲人被殺害，隨後水手們將他身體的部分切下烹煮，並與米飯一起分給其他非洲人食用。」約半打證人曾看到「葡萄牙水手將 Mina 帶到他們在甲板上豎起的一塊帆幕後，以阻止其他非洲人看到即將發生的事」。其中一名「從帆布縫隙偷看的人……描述說他們如何用『一把長刀』割開 Mina 的喉嚨」。幾名被奴役的女孩看到「從 Mina 身上切下的肉被切成小塊……並在專供非洲人使用的大鍋里煮」。其中一人補充說，「水手們還把 Mina 的肝臟和心臟放在他們自己的小鍋里煮，然後自己吃掉了這些部位」，另有證人證實了這一點。[131]
  • 1874 年 11 月，在 Cospatrick 災難發生後，三名英國水手通過實行食人而存活下來。[132]
  • 另一起較少為人所知的海上食人事件，涉及 Maria of Belfast 號三桅帆船的主要愛爾蘭籍船員。1876 年 12 月，該船在西非海岸附近遭遇惡劣海況，被風暴折斷桅杆。唯一的倖存者、來自 Kilkeel 的 20 歲青年 James McLinden 描述了最後死去的人如何試圖依靠先前逝去同伴的屍體維生。[133]
  • 1884年7月5日，英國船隻木犀草號（Mignonette）在南大西洋遇難，四名生還的船員中的兩人為了生存殺死並感激食用了另一名船員，英國政府認為應該將兩人依謀殺罪起訴，兩人被法院判處絞刑，基於當時的民意女王特赦了兩人，將死刑改為監禁半年並建立了「緊急避難不能合理化謀殺行徑」的法律論述。見女王訴杜德利與斯蒂芬案。
  • 19 世紀 90 年代，為了紀念法國伯爵 Rodolphe Festetics de Tolna 及其船員訪問所羅門群島之一的馬萊塔島，當地屠殺了五六名年輕的女奴隸，以舉行一場食人宴。伯爵在她們被殺前不久為她們拍下了照片。他沒有說明自己是否吃了她們的肉，但承認在一兩次其他場合曾食用過人肉。[134][135]
  • 一份日期為 1892 年 7 月 28 日的報告顯示，薩哈林刑罰殖民地有三人因食人指控而被定罪。殖民地居民中還記錄了兩首提及食人的歌曲。[136]

近代歐洲本土食人

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  • 1648~1666年波蘭遭瑞典、俄羅斯和烏克蘭哥薩克入侵的洪水時期，曾經是王室最富庶領地的Żuławach在貓和狗被吃掉後據稱出現了食人情況。[137]
  • Melchior Hedloff，外號「Melcher Shooter」。他是一名攔路強盜，被指控為食人者，以用火槍殺死受害者、再用土耳其彎刀肢解屍體而聞名。1653 年被捕，1654 年在承認犯下 251 起謀殺後被處決。[138][139]
  • 1695～1697芬蘭饑荒期間出現了人相食。[143]
  • 1707年，不滿10歲且有智力障礙的蘇格蘭貴族詹姆斯·道格拉斯，昆士伯里第三侯爵繼承人殺死了家僕並烤食，因為未成年而免去刑罰[144][145]。
  • French showman and soldier Tarrare had reportedly engaged in cannibalism.
  • Polish soldier Charles Domery ate pieces of a fellow crew member's severed leg.
  • Death of Princess de Lamballe in 1792 at the hands of the sansculottes in the streets of Paris: the beautiful confidante of Marie Antoinette was butchered on the spot and allegedly her heart was taken and eaten by one rioter. One of the brigands carried on the end of a pike that head from which hung a mass of blonde hair soaked with blood. He was followed by another, who carried in his hand the bloody heart of the princess while her entrails were twisted around his arm. In this way they passed under the windows of the Duc de Penago, whom they forced to gaze on the mutilated members of his daughter-in-law. From there they proceeded to the Temple, to the royal family. The queen fainted at the horrible sight. All the carriages in the streets were stopped and their occupants compelled to kiss the head of the princess. One monster boasted of having made his dinner on the heart of Madame de Lamballe.
  • 在1799年，尼古拉·菲亞尼·迪·托雷瑪焦雷的肝臟在波旁王朝對那不勒斯共和國的鎮壓中被油炸和吃掉[21]。
  • 1808年拿破崙戰爭期間，法軍在西班牙的拜倫戰役戰敗後，7,000名戰俘被西班牙轉移至無人居住的卡布雷拉島，由於西班牙政府在戰場上無法及時供應自己的軍隊糧食，更是無法妥善照顧囚犯。在補給船未能抵達時發生了食人事件，最終存活並返回法國的不到一半[146]。
  • 1812年，拿破崙從俄羅斯撤離期間，軍隊中出現了同類相食和啃咬自己身體的現象。從征的波蘭貴族軍官Roman Sołtyk說自己曾用6法郎購買一碗用士兵的肉和腎臟做的湯。[147]法國貴族回憶說在木屋中燒死的士兵的屍體也被吃掉了[148]中隊隊長Eugène Labaume回憶在極寒之下，有士兵把自己的手臂切下來烤來吃。[149][150]
  • 一名名叫 Aimée Debully 的法國女子於 1824 年遭 Antoine Léger 強姦並殺害。隨後，Léger 吃下了 Debully 的心臟，並對屍體實施了戀屍行為。[151][152]
  • 《The Acadian Recorder》1826 年 5 月 27 日的報道指出，Francis Mary 號船隻的倖存船員曾訴諸食人。[153]
  • In 1837, a British cruiser captured the Portuguese schooner Arrogante, which had tried to bring several hundred West African slaves to Cuba, circumventing the British blockade. More than 60 Africans had died of hunger and diseases during the crossing, and the rest was severely undernourished. Many of the survivors reported "that one of the Africans on board the Arrogante had been murdered, and that, subsequently, the sailors had cooked pieces of his body and served them with rice to the rest of the Africans."[154] Half a dozen witnesses had seen "how the Portuguese sailors took Mina behind a sail that they had put up across the deck to stop the rest of the Africans from witnessing what was about to happen." One "who had peeped through the holes in the sail ... described how they cut Mina's throat 'with a long knife'".[155] Several enslaved girls saw how "the flesh of Mina had been cut into small pieces and ... cooked in the big pot destined for the Africans." One of them added "that the sailors had also cooked the liver and heart of Mina in their own smaller pot, and then had eaten those parts themselves", and another witness confirmed this observation.[156]: The British colonial authorities in Jamaica decided not to press charges against any of the Portuguese sailors, mostly based on the argument that they considered the ship's captain – who was known to have directed at least six slave voyages – too "inoffensive" to be capable "of such a horrible transaction".[157] Observing that this was not the only case where accusations of "White cannibalism" by Black victims of the slave trade were dismissed, the author of the paper investigating the case concludes that, "sheltered by distance, isolation, and lawlessness while at sea, other similar instances may have indeed taken place between the sixteenth and the nineteenth centuries."[158]
  • 1847年奧地利帝國治下的加利西亞地區饑荒亦出現了人相食。[161]
  • Clergyman Sabine Baring-Gould, in his 1865 book The Book of Were-Wolves, Being an Account of a Terrible Superstition, recorded an 1849 case in which a vagrant named Swiatek was arrested in the Galician village of Połomia for murdering a 14-year-old girl and eating parts of her body. Swiatek also admitted to having killed and eaten five other people since 1846, although evidence was found of up to 14 victims. He claimed that he had developed a taste for human flesh three years previously after hunger obliged him to eat the body of a man killed in a tavern fire.[162]
  • 1888年的連環殺手開膛手傑克也有食人[163][164]。During October 1888, during the investigation of the Whitechapel murders, George Lusk received a letter alongside half a preserved human kidney. The letter's writer claimed to be serial killer Jack the Ripper, and claimed to have fried and eaten the other half of the kidney.
  • Seven-year-old Bernardo Gonzalez Parra was kidnapped and murdered by Francisco Leona and several others in June 1910, and his blood drunk by a man named Ortega as a folk cure for tuberculosis.[165]
  • 卡爾·登克是一名普魯士連環殺手和食人者，他從1903年至1924年間殺死並食用了數十名無家可歸的流浪者和旅行者。他經常被視為「被遺忘的食人族」或「津比采的食人族」。在1924年12月21日作案失誤被捕後，於次日在廚房中上吊自殺，警方未能訊問。[166][167][168]

兩次世界大戰間食人

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  • 在德國，Fritz Haarmann（也被稱作「漢諾威的屠夫」）於1918年至1924年性侵併謀殺了至少24名男孩，大多為青少年。他經常在黑市出售無骨碎肉並對肉的來源給出不同甚至自相矛盾的解釋。關於這是他處理受害者遺體方式的懷疑從來沒有得到過證實，但也未被證偽。[169][170]
  • 1921年-1922年俄羅斯大饑荒，糧食不足出現了人相食。[171]
  • 1941-1944年列寧格勒圍城期間出現了人相食。[172]1943年1月和2月，德國士兵在史太林格勒戰役投降後，大約10萬名德國士兵被俘虜。幾乎所有這些人都被送往西伯利亞或中亞的戰俘營，在那裏，由於吃不飽，許多軍官與戰俘開始出現了人相食。[173]
  • 雅典被軸心國佔領期間，在1941～1942年間的食物短缺期間可能發生了食人。[174]
  • 1943-1945年在貝爾根-貝爾森集中營發生的食人行為加重了大屠殺的恐怖氛圍。[175]

戰後食人

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  • 1946~1947年，戰後剛剛移交給蘇聯的摩爾多瓦因管理不善發生了饑荒，屍體被大規模食用，甚至出現了以食用為目的的謀殺。[178]
  • German serial killer Joachim Kroll, nicknamed "Duisburg Man-Eater", practised cannibalism from the mid-1950s until his arrest more than 20 years later.[179]
  • In summer of 1963, Josef Kulík from Czechoslovakia (at that time serving compulsory military service) killed two young boys in a railway wagon. He cut their bodies open, roasted some of their internal organs on a fire, and ate them. He used some old funeral wreaths he had found near the wagon for fuel.[來源請求]

1980s

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  • From 1979 to 1980, Nikolai Dzhumagaliev killed at least seven women and cannibalized their corpses.[180]
  • 1981年，捷克斯洛伐克連環殺手Ladislav Hojer招供層殺死一名女子並割下其乳房和陰部，並將後者用鹽水煮過後配上芥末食用。他表示因為味道太underwhelming，扔掉了一部分。[181]
  • 1982年3月5日，愛沙尼亞的Johannes-Andreas Hanni（英語：Johannes-Andreas Hanni）殺死了一名海員Eimar Vibo，將其大腿肉割下帶回家，當着妻子的面燒烤後「很高興地」吃掉了[182]。年內和妻子又殺害了另外2人，在襲擊第四名受害者時被蘇聯當局逮捕，年底在獄中上吊自殺。

1990s

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  • Andrei Chikatilo, a serial killer born in Ukraine, experienced killing and cannibalism as paraphilia. He was convicted for murder in 1992 and subsequently executed.[183][184]
  • Alexander Spesivtsev killed and partially ate at least four young girls in Novokuznetsk, Russia. His mother assisted him and cooked the victims' flesh. Following their arrest in October 1996 and subsequent trial, Spesivtsev was permanently sent to a psychiatric hospital, while his mother was sentenced to a prison term.[185][186]
  • Ilshat Kuzikov, of St. Petersburg, Russia, was convicted in March 1997 of eating three male acquaintances since 1992.[187]
  • Between 1997 and 1998, Mikhail Malyshev murdered at least two acquaintances and cannibalized their remains at his apartment in Perm, Russia. He was sentenced to 25 years imprisonment with two years time served for these murders and multiple counts of animal cruelty, and was released in October 2022 after serving out his sentence in full.[188]
  • 1998年11月21日，芬蘭的撒旦教教徒Jarno Elg殺害了另一名教徒並食用了其身體的部分，被判終身監禁。

2000s

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  • Brad McCall，一名於 2007 年逃離部隊、前往加拿大的前美國士兵，提到：「一名士兵講述，我所在部隊裏有個專業兵在整個服役期間都把一根人類手指放在他的牆櫃裏。隨後，當我聽說另一個連的士兵吃下了一名伊拉克平民被美軍目標 IED 攻擊燒焦的肉塊時，大家鬨笑一片。」[189]
  • On 11 March 2000, Igor Churasov and Gennady Shurmanov were arrested for murdering seven people in Ryazan, Russia, from 1997 to 2000. It was later revealed that Churasov dismembered some of the victims' corpses and ate parts of them. Both men were found incompetent to stand trial for reasons of insanity and instead committed to a psychiatric hospital.[190]
  • 2001年聖誕節，德國埃森的電腦技術人員阿明·邁韋斯在互聯網聯繫上一名自願者Bernd Jürgen Brandes一起安排計劃吃掉他。一開始他們沒有想死但後來決定殺了他。[191]邁韋斯於2005年5月9日被判終身監禁。
  • In July 2002, four Ukrainians were arrested in Kyiv for killing and eating a teenage girl. They were suspected of killing at least 6 people. Evidence showed that the murders may have been influenced by satanism.[192]
  • In late 2002, Russian brothers Denis and Evgenyi Gorin were arrested for killing an acquaintance in Aniva, Sakhalin Oblast, and then eating the soft tissues of his body. Both served minor prison sentences and killed at least three people after release, with Denis eating parts of one victim.[193]
  • In February 2004, 34-year-old Peter Bryan from East London was caught after he killed his friend Brian Cherry and ate parts of his brain, fried in butter. He had been arrested for murder previously but was released shortly before this act was committed. For the murder of Cherry, Bryan was sentenced to life imprisonment, despite his claim of diminished responsibility.[194][195] In January 2006, his sentence was revised to a minimum of 15 years.[196]
  • On January 5, 2007, French authorities reported that a prison inmate committed cannibalism on a cellmate, in the city of Rouen.[197]
  • On January 13, 2007, Marco Evaristti hosted a dinner party where the main course was agnolotti pasta that was topped with a meatball made from his own fat, removed earlier in the year in a liposuction operation.[198]
  • On 14 September 2007, Özgür Dengiz was arrested in Ankara, the Turkish capital, after killing and eating a man. After cutting slices of flesh from his victim's body, Dengiz distributed the rest to stray dogs on the street, according to his own testimony. He ate some of the man's flesh raw on his way home. Dengiz, who lived with his parents, arrived at the family house and placed the remaining parts of the body in the refrigerator without saying a word to his parents.[199][200]
  • Members of a Satanist youth gang killed four teenagers (three girls and a boy) in Satanic rituals in the Russian Yaroslavl region in 2008.[201] After killing their victims, they beheaded the corpses, ate their tongues, breasts, and hearts, and had sex with the corpses. Nikolai Ogolobyak, who had been an adult at the time of the murders, was sentenced to 20 years in a penal colony. Several minors who had also been involved received sentences of 8–10 years or were sent to mental institutions.[202] In 2023, Ogolobyak was pardoned after having volunteered to fight in the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[201][202]
  • 2008年，英國前模特安東尼·莫利Anthony Morley殺死並吃掉雜誌編輯男友Oldfield的腿。[203][204][205]
  • In April 2009, two men from the city of Perm, Russia, killed and ate their brother.[206]
  • On November 14, 2009, three homeless men in Perm, Russia were arrested for killing and eating the parts of a 25-year-old male victim. The remaining body parts were then sold to a local pie and kebab house.[207]

2010s

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  • 2009 年至 2011 年間，俄羅斯 Berlinskoe 的居民、連環殺手 Alexander Bychkov 多次實施食人行為，目標是他先前誘騙至自家的人。[208]
  • In April and May 2010, PhD student Stephen Griffiths from Bradford, England killed and ate three prostitutes, becoming known as the Crossbow Cannibal.[209]
  • In November 2010, Isakin Jonsson killed and decapitated his girlfriend in Skara, Sweden. With a knife, saw and ax, he separated her head from the body. He also cut off pieces of flesh from one of her arms and legs, which he carried into the kitchen to cook. He prepared them with salt and home grown cannabis leaves, and ate them. He also carried her head over to the kitchen counter and processed it with an ax and knife, possibly to eat it. Jonsson was convicted of murder and sentenced to forensic psychiatric care.
  • On July 9, 2011, a model in the St. Petersburg region of Russia drowned her colleague and consumed parts of her corpse. She was later detained, found guilty of murder, and sent to a psychiatric hospital for treatment, where she was diagnosed with schizophrenia.[210]
  • In August 2011, police found the body parts of various victims in serial killer Matej Čurko's refrigerator, including those of two Slovak women who disappeared in 2010.[211]
  • On 21 March 2012, a Vladivostok man killed his friend, later selling his meat in a local market. Another man was convicted of knowingly consuming the flesh of the victim.[212]
  • In July 2013, the Italian cannibal Lino Renzi, aged 45, was discovered by the police whilst he was cooking some remains of his mother, Maria Pia Guariglia, aged 73, in his apartment. The police had been called by a neighbour after smelling a disgusting odor coming from Renzi's apartment, possibly caused by some intestine chunks burning on the grill. Several pieces of human body were also discovered in a freezer, oven and pots, while most of the corpse, lying in the bathroom, featured severe mutilation to arms and legs, with several intestine pieces removed. Later on, Renzi confessed that his mother had not died of natural causes, but she had been brutally beaten to death by him after a quarrel, then dismembered into pieces with a saw and a butcher knife.[213]
  • One evening in February 2014, a man named Dmitry Malyshev murdered a drinking buddy in the village of Rakhinka, in Russia's Volgograd Oblast. He then cut out the victim's heart and filmed himself cooking it, but was apprehended before he could eat it. He was later sentenced to 25 years imprisonment for this and two previous murders he admitted to after his arrest.[214]
  • On November 6, 2014, Matthew Williams, 34, was allegedly found eating his 22-year-old victim's face in a room of the Sirhowy Arms Hotel in the village of Argoed, near Blackwood, South Wales, United Kingdom.[215]
  • Gordon Semple was strangled to death by Stefano Brizzi in London on 1 April 2016 during a sex act. Evidence presented at trial showed that Brizzi had cooked and eaten parts of Semple's body during the following days.[216][217]
  • 2017年9月,35歲的Dmitry Baksheev和42歲的Natalia Baksheeva在克拉斯諾達爾因陸續食用30個人類的嫌疑被捕[218]。
  • 2018年3月，俄羅斯連環殺手Eduard Seleznev被逮捕，審訊中得知其曾殺死三人後，將屍體食用並液化骨頭[219]。
  • 2018年10月30日，哈爾科夫的一對父子因將一位退休警官斬首並食用其身體而被逮捕[220]。
  • In May 2018, the Reddit user u/IncrediblyShinyShart[221] consumed his amputated foot with 10 of his friends. After an accident 2 years earlier, his foot would not heal, and the doctors suggested that he would be better if he amputated it. He subsequently asked his friends, "Remember how we always talked about how, if we ever had the chance to ethically eat human meat, would you do it?"[222]
  • 2019年2月，馬德里的Alberto Sánchez Gómez將自己的母親殺死，切成塊後除了自己吃也分給狗吃，他雖然自首後但還是被判十五年徒刑，還要向兄弟賠償60,000歐元但是他賠不出來[223]。

2020s

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  • 2021年，俄羅斯卡累利阿共和國（Karelia）與聖彼得堡（Saint Petersburg）發生儀式性謀殺事件，四名與撒旦教派「九角之會」（Order of Nine Angles）有關的成員被捕，其中兩人供認在儀式中實施了包括食人行為在內的殺人行徑。[224][225][226][227]
  • 2023年春季，西班牙網紅寶拉·戈努（Paula Gonu）在接受膝蓋手術切除軟骨後，將取出的軟骨加入意大利肉醬面中食用。[228]
  • 德國斯圖加特2024年首演的佛洛倫蒂娜·霍爾辛格（Florentina Holzinger）音樂劇《Sancta》中，出現演員在舞台上真實切割腹部皮膚並由另一演員當場食用的情節，以象徵聖餐儀式（Eucharist）。[229]

文藝作品食人

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  • 希臘神話故事裏，克羅諾斯受到母親蓋亞的慫恿，推翻了自己父親烏拉諾斯，父親預言他也將被自己的孩子推翻，於是他的子女一出生，就被他吃掉，他的其中一個妻子拉亞騙他吞下一顆石頭讓宙斯倖免。長大後的宙斯終於推翻以克羅諾斯為首的泰坦諸神。宙斯也有吃掉敵人行為[230]。另外，後來的阿卡迪亞國王Lycaon因殺死兒子並試圖讓宙斯的諸神食用，被罰變身成狼。[231]阿卡迪亞另一國王Clymenus強姦其女Harpalyce並產下一子。為了報復，Harpalyce將這個男孩的肉給父親吃了。[232]
  • 索福克勒斯的戲劇《Tereus》殘本中，色雷斯國王Tereus強姦了妻子Procne的姐妹Philomela並使她殘疾，Procne發現後，將她自己和Tereus生的兒子Itys殺死後餵給Tereus吃[233]。Itys的屍體被斬首後切成小塊下銅鍋烹煮。 [234]
  • 1289年，原為教皇派的貴族Ugolino della Gherardesca被指控叛國而被捕，和幾個兒子一起在地牢中餓死。因但丁在神曲中的藝術加工，被認為死前吃了兒子的肉。
  • 武功歌《Richard Coer de Lyon》中，描述獅心王理查在聖地征戰期間染病，廚師為他準備了一個年輕的薩拉森人的肉，之後恢復健康。被部下告知是人肉後，滿意笑稱只要薩拉森人夠吃，這次遠征就不缺軍糧了。攻下阿卡後，議和使節用煮過的薩拉森戰俘頭顱宴請薩拉丁[235]。
  • Giovanni Boccaccio takes up the theme in the ninth novella of the fourth day of the Decameron, which has powerful traits in common with the Vida of William of Cabestany, although it is believed to derive from an earlier source which might have inspired both versions. Boccaccio tells of Guglielmo da Rossiglione, whose wife, Madonna Soremonda, betrays him with his dear friend Guglielmo Guardastagno. After the jealous husband discovers the affair, he kills Guardastagno and cooks his heart, serving it to the unfortunate woman who decides to end her life after learning the truth, at the end of the meal, about the macabre ingredients.6
  • 1729年，英國作家喬納森·斯威夫特鑑於愛爾蘭人口過剩的情況，在A Modest Proposal一文中以諷刺口吻建議愛爾蘭人將他們養不起的嬰兒賣給英格蘭人吃。[237]
  • Midsommar

傳統醫藥食人

[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
  • 希臘醫學家蓋侖認為人肉，特別是年輕人的肉，是嫩而甜的。 [238]
  • 中世紀時期的歐洲開始用從埃及進口的木乃伊研磨碾碎後入藥[239]，後來因為木乃伊供應不足，歐洲本土死刑犯的皮、肉、骨、血、脂肪和內臟也被用來仿製類似藥物[240]。雖說18世紀啟蒙時代期間已經被主流醫學界反對，但遲至19世紀中期的維多利亞時代仍流傳於民間藥方中[241][242][243]。
  • 意大利的Maremma地區一直有將人類或動物胎盤加入食物中，幫助產後母親產奶的習俗[244][245]。

參考來源

[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
  1. ↑ The caves that prove Neanderthals were cannibals. 
  2. ↑ The edible dead. Britarch.ac.uk. [August 30, 2009]. （原始內容存檔於2010-03-16）. 
  3. ↑ https://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-europe/mystery-herxheim-was-entire-village-cannibalized-006760
  4. ↑ https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/abs/mass-cannibalism-in-the-linear-pottery-culture-at-herxheim-palatinate-germany/2E337084566E8E0E8C8CBF18F1E33157
  5. ↑ Europe's Hypocritical History of Cannibalism. Smithsonian Magazine. 24 April 2013 [21 November 2014]. 
  6. ↑ Mead, Simon; Whitfield, Jerome; Poulter, Mark; Shah, Paresh; Uphill, James; Campbell, Tracy; Al-Dujaily, Huda; Hummerich, Holger; Beck, Jon; Mein, Charles A.; Verzilli, Claudio; Whittaker, John; Alpers, Michael P.; Collinge, John. A Novel Protective Prion Protein Variant that Colocalizes with Kuru Exposure (PDF). New England Journal of Medicine. 2009, 361 (21): 2056–65. PMID 19923577. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0809716. 
  7. ↑ Liberski, Pawel. Kuru: A Journey Back in Time from Papua New Guinea to the Neanderthals' Extinction. Pathogens. 2013, 2 (3): 472–505. PMC 4235695 可免費查閱. PMID 25437203. doi:10.3390/pathogens2030472 可免費查閱. 
  8. ↑ McKie, Robin. Bones from a Cheddar Gorge cave show that cannibalism helped Britain's earliest settlers survive the ice age. The Guardian (London). June 20, 2010 [June 20, 2010]. 
  9. ↑ Johnston, Ian. Cannibals who once lived in Somerset cave engraved human bones as part of eating ritual, study finds. The Independent. 9 August 2017 [8 May 2023]. 
  10. ↑ Tatian. Address to the Greeks. newadvent. [2023-01-19]. 
  11. ↑ 連結到維基文庫 History of the Peloponnesian War. 維基文庫 (英語). 
  12. ↑ https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/pydna
  13. ↑ 5 Demosthenes, in Eubul.; in Macart. Isæus, VIII. 18., from The Ancient City by Fustel de Coulanges
  14. ↑ Louis Rawlings, Hannibal the Cannibal? Polybius on Barcid atrocities （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）, Cardiff Historical Papers, 2007/9
  15. ↑ Sextus Empiricus. Against the Ethicists, sections 192–194.
  16. ↑ 中外食人史话. 豆瓣讀書. 2020-11-16 [1950-10-29]. 
  17. ↑ Peter Garnsey. Famine and Food Supply in the Graeco-Roman World. Cambridge University Press. November 2009: 35–36 [2023-01-19]. ISBN 9780511583827. 
  18. ↑ Fernando Quesada Sanz. De guerreros a soldados. El ejército de Aníbal como un ejército cartaginés atípico (PDF). Universidad Autónoma de Madrid （西班牙語）. 
  19. ↑ Appian. The Wars in Spain, Chapter XV, Section 96 （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）. Translated by Horace White. Hosted at the Perseus Digital Library.
  20. ↑ https://la.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Commentarii_de_bello_Gallico/Liber_VII#77
  21. ↑ Madejski, Paweł. "Breaking the Taboo: Cannibalism and Revenge in Ancient Greece and Rome (preliminary remarks)." Cvstos Fragilivm: cialo i jego potrzeby w staroźytności (2015): 121-128.
  22. ↑ Cass. Dio 59.29.7 Sturzius; Barret 1993, 165.
  23. ↑ Flavius Josephus. The Wars of the Jews, Book VI, Chapter 3, Section 4 （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）. Translated by William Whiston. Hosted at the Perseus Digital Library.
  24. ↑ Maclean Rogers, Guy (2021). For the Freedom of Zion: The Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66–74 CE. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 3–5. ISBN 978-0-300-26256-8. OCLC 1294393934.
  25. ↑ Vandenberg, Vincent. "De chair et de sang."
  26. ↑ Lanting; Van Der Plicht (2010), "De 14C chronologie van de Nederlandse Pre- and Protohistorie VI: Romeinse tijd en Meronvingische periode, deel A: historische bronnen en chronologische thema's", Palaeohistoria, 51/52, ISBN 9789077922736
  27. ↑ 連結到維基文庫 Agricola. 維基文庫 (英語). 
  28. ↑ Cassio Dione Cocceiano, Historia Romana.LXXIV, 12.
  29. ↑ Schaff, Philip; Wace, Henry, eds. (1893). St. Jerome: Letters and Select Works. New York: The Christian Literature Company. p. 394 (book 2, chap. 7). Retrieved 20 July 2023. "Why should I speak of other nations when I myself, a youth on a visit to Gaul, heard that the Atticoti, a British tribe, eat human flesh, and that although they find herds of swine, and droves of large or small cattle in the woods, it is their custom to cut off the buttocks of the shepherds and the breasts of their women, and to regard them as the greatest delicacies?"
  30. ↑ Kneale, Matthew. Rome: A history in seven sackings. Simon & Schuster, 2019.
  31. ↑ Sozomeno, IV,8.
  32. ↑ Burgess, The Chronicle of Hydatius,83
  33. ↑ Famine and Food Supply in the Graeco-Roman World (Garnsey, Peter), pp32
  34. ↑ Pseudo-Joshua, Joshua, Trombley, F. R., & Watt, J. W. (2000). The chronicle of pseudo-Joshua the Stylite. Liverpool University Press.
  35. ↑ Eodem tempore tanta fames fuit per universum mundum, ut Dacius episcopus civitatis Mediolanesis relatione sua hoc evidenter narraverit, quod in partibus Liguriae mulieres filios suos comedissent penuria famis, quas retulit ex Ecclesiae suae fuisse familia. Liber Pontificalis. DUCHESNE, Louis. Le Liber Pontificalis, texte, introduction et commentaire, 2 vols.. Paris: E. Thorin, 1886-1892.
  36. ↑ pp.272, Stathakopoulos, Dionysios Ch. Famine and pestilence in the late Roman and early Byzantine empire: a systematic survey of subsistence crises and epidemics. Routledge, 2017.
  37. ↑ Stathakopoulos, D. C. (2004). Famine and pestilence in the late Roman and early Byzantine empire : a systematic survey of subsistence crises and epidemics. Ashgate.
  38. ↑ 連結到維基文庫 Istoria delle guerre gottiche. 維基文庫 (意大利語). 
  39. ↑ Geoffrey of Monmouth, The 「Historia」, vol. V, 262–263. See Heng, Empire of Magic, 60.
  40. ↑ O'Grada, Cormac. "Eating people is wrong: Famine's darkest secret?." Available at SSRN 2209806 (2013):p.p. 16
  41. ↑ Cannibales! de Pierre-Antoine Bernheim et Guy Stavridès paru aux éditions Plon en 1992
  42. ↑ pp. 394, Newfield, Timothy. "The contours of disease and hunger in Carolingian and early Ottonian Europe (c. 750-c. 950)." (2011).
  43. ↑ Grand dictionnaire universel du XIXe siècle.... Tome 1 / par M. Pierre Larousse... | Gallica. 
  44. ↑ Rodolphus Glaber, Historiarum Libri Quinque, ed. Neithard BuIst, trans. John France and Paul Reynolds [Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989], pp. 187-189
  45. ↑ Forester, Thomas. The Chronicle of Florence of Worcester, p. 174
  46. ↑ Kapelle, p. 3
  47. ↑ Rex. The English Resistance: The Underground War Against the Normans (p. 108); retrieved 30 January 2014
  48. ↑ Maalouf, Amin. The Crusades Through Arab Eyes. New York: Schocken Books. 1984: 37–40. ISBN 978-0-8052-0898-6. 
  49. ↑ Hotaling 2003，第114頁
  50. ↑ pp.17, O'Grada, Cormac. "Eating people is wrong: Famine's darkest secret?." Available at SSRN 2209806 (2013).
  51. ↑ Richard of Hexham, John of Worcester and John of Hexham at A.O. Anderson, Scottish Annals, p. 180.
  52. ↑ McGlynn, Sean. By Sword and Fire: cruelty and atrocity in Medieval Warfare. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2014.
  53. ↑ Classen, A. (2008). Sexuality in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Times: New Approaches to a Fundamental Cultural-Historical and Literary-Anthropological Theme. Fundamentals of Medieval and Early Modern Culture. De Gruyter. p. 405. ISBN 978-3-11-020940-2. Retrieved 2022-10-09
  54. ↑ 《北方騎士團的興衰》[英]埃里克·克里斯琴森 譯者:李達/周超宇 第一章北方十字軍運動前夕的歐洲東北部 P10-12 民主與建設出版社
  55. ↑ https://hunghist.org/83-articles?start=105
  56. ↑ Alfonso X el Sabio, Las Siete Partidas (el Libro del Fuero de las Leyes), a cura di J. Sánchez-Arcilla Bernal, Quarta partida, Título XVII, Ley XVIII («Por que razones pueda el padre vender, o empeñar a su hijo»), Madrid, Reus, 2004, p. 659. Sul contesto nel quale furono emesse le Siete Partidas, sull』opera di traduzione, lo sforzo legislativo operato da Alfonso X di Castiglia si vedano A. Vanoli, La Spagna delle tre culture. Ebrei, cristiani e musulmani tra storia e mito, Roma, Viella, 2006, pp. 138-142; Id., La reconquista, Bologna, Il Mulino, 2009, pp. 171-173.
  57. ↑ http://www.kar.zcu.cz/texty/Brazdil-Kotyza2001.htm
  58. ↑ Montanari, Angelica Aurora. "What’s bubbling in the pot? The enemy’s torment." Cahiers de recherches médiévales et humanistes. Journal of medieval and humanistic studies 36 (2018): 339-356.: Gugliemo Ventura, De gestis civium Astensium et plurium aliorum (1260-1325), ed. C. Combetti, Torino, 1848, col. 747-748 (l. D1-6).
  59. ↑ Corpus Chronicorum Bononiensium (Cronaca B-Varignana), ed. A. Sorbelli, in Rerum Italicarum scriptores, Bologna, t. 18/1b, 1938, p. 320
  60. ↑ il fiero pasto
  61. ↑ Pennell, C.R. Cannibalism in Early Modern North Africa. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. 1991, 18 (2): 169–185. JSTOR 196038. doi:10.1080/13530199108705536. 
  62. ↑ Jones, Evan T. (編). Bristol Archives 09594/1 (PDF). Bristol Annal (Bristol Record Society). 30 September 2019. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於25 January 2021）. 
  63. ↑ Lucas, Henry S. The great European Famine of 1315, 1316, 1317. Speculum. October 1930, 5 (4): 343–377. JSTOR 2848143. doi:10.2307/2848143. 
  64. ↑ 210. Curschmann, Hungersnöte, pp. 59–60; Lucas, 「Great European Famine,」 pp. 355–56. See also Diemar, Chroniken des Wigand Gerstenberg, p. 238(man ate man and dog ate dog), as cited in Jordan, William Chester. The great famine: Northern Europe in the early fourteenth century. Princeton University Press, 1997.
  65. ↑ pp.17, O'Grada, Cormac. "Eating people is wrong: Famine's darkest secret?." Available at SSRN 2209806 (2013).
  66. ↑ Jones, Evan T. (編). Bristol Archives 09594/1 (PDF). Bristol Annal (Bristol Record Society). 30 September 2019. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於25 January 2021）. 
  67. ↑ Stathakopoulos, Famine and Pestilence; Sir Walter Scott, History of Scotland, vol. 1, ch. 13, as cited in O'Grada, Cormac. "Eating people is wrong: Famine's darkest secret?." Available at SSRN 2209806 (2013).
  68. ↑ Michele da Piazza, Cronaca 1336-1361, a cura di A. Giuffrida, Palermo-São Paulo, Renzo Mazzone Editore-Italo-Latino-Americana Palma, 1980, cap. IX, p. 59.
  69. ↑ Sumption, Jonathan (1990). Trial by Battle. The Hundred Years' War. Vol. I. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0571200955. pp.576~577
  70. ↑ Tuchman, Barbara W. A distant mirror: The calamitous 14th century. Random House, 2011.
  71. ↑ Seward, Desmond. The Hundred Years War: The English in France 1337-1453. Penguin, 1999.
  72. ↑ il fiero pasto
  73. ↑ Ladurie, Emmanuel Le Roy. The peasants of Languedoc. Vol. 635. No. 6. University of Illinois Press, 1976. pp.197
  74. ↑ Chronicon Estense, ed. L. A. Muratori, in Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, Milan, t. 15, 1929, coll. 297-548, at col. 510 b-c; Sagacius et Petrus de Gazata, Chronicon Regiense, ed. L. A. Muratori, in Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, Milan, t. 18, 1931, col. 5-98, at col. 91. The Chronicon Estense and the Chronicon Regiense are the only two sources to report the act of anthropophagy, but useful and interesting information on the episode is also found in other testimonies: Corpus Chronicorum Bononiensium, p. 374; Conforto da Costoza, Frammenti di storia vicentina, ed. C. Steiner, in Rerum Italicarum scriptores, Città di Castello, t. 13/1, p. 32-33; G. Gatari e B. Gatari, Cronaca carrarese, ed. A. Medin and G. Tolomei, in Rerum Italicarum scriptores, Bologna, t. 17/1, 1931, p. 237. See J. E. Law, 「Popular unrest in Ferrara in 1385」, The Renaissance in Ferrara and Its European Horizons, ed. J. Salmons and W. Moretti, Cardiff-Ravenna, University of Wales Press-Edizioni del Girasole, 1984, p. 41-60.
  75. ↑ https://www.historytoday.com/archive/eating-your-enemy
  76. ↑ McGlynn, Sean. By Sword and Fire: cruelty and atrocity in Medieval Warfare. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2014.
  77. ↑ Graziani, Chronica di Perugia (Arch. stor. XVI, I, p. 415)
  78. ↑ Tuchman, Barbara W. A distant mirror: The calamitous 14th century. Random House, 2011.
  79. ↑ Chronique de Enguerrand de Monstrelet des éditions Louis Douët d'Arcq (dernier tome)
  80. ↑ Capricci Medicinali, 50v
  81. ↑ pp. 117, Torraca, Luigi. 1949-50. 『A proposito di un recente episodio di antropofagia」, Atti della Accademia Pontaniana, nuova serie, 3,
  82. ↑ Eamon, W. (1998). Cannibalism and Contagion: Framing Syphilis in Counter-Reformation Italy. Early Science and Medicine, 3(1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1163/157338298X00013
  83. ↑ Barabási, Albert-László. Bursts需要免費註冊 First. New York, United States: Penguin Group. 2010: 263–266. ISBN 978-0-525-95160-5. 
  84. ↑ Leslie A. Sconduto, Metamorphoses of the Werewolf - A Literary Study from Antiquity Through the Renaissance, McFarland · 2014, page 137
  85. ↑ Guicciardini, 『Sacco』, 225, 239.
  86. ↑ Turchin, Peter; Nefedov, Sergey A. (2009). Secular Cycles. ISBN 9780691136967.
  87. ↑ Vandenberg, Vincent. "De chair et de sang." Images et pratiques du cannibalisme de l』Antiquité au Moyen Âge. Rennes, France: Presses universitaires de Rennes. Presses universitaires François-Rabelais de Tours (2014).
  88. ↑ Roberts, Penny (2015). "Riot and Religion in Sixteenth-Century France". In Davis, Michael T. (ed.). Crowd Actions in Britain and France from the Middle Ages to the Modern World (illustrated ed.). Springer. pp. 35–36. ISBN 1137316519.
  89. ↑ pp.196, LaGuardia, David P., and Cathy Yandell, eds. Memory and Community in Sixteenth-Century France. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2015.
  90. ↑ pp.398 Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. 1966. Les paysans de Languedoc, Paris
  91. ↑ Brad Steiger (1 September 2011). The Werewolf Book: The Encyclopedia of Shape-Shifting Beings. Visible Ink Press. pp. 118–. ISBN 978-1-57859-367-5.
  92. ↑ Jean de Léry, The Memorable History of the Siege of Sancerre (1574)
  93. ↑ https://www.historytoday.com/archive/eating-your-enemy
  94. ↑ Examples of such pamphlets and ballads are listed in Weller (1872), for example item 481: Hock (1577) (in this pamphlet, the gang is said to have been responsible for 540 murders up to 1577), item 548: Müller, 1 (1582), item 566: Müller,2 (1582), item 570: Basel (1582), item 587: Strassburg (1583). It is only in the last one, according to Joy Wiltenburg, that the Devil makes an explicit pact with Niers and his accomplices, and promises them supernatural powers to be gained by the use of fetuses in black magic rituals.
  95. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SAXvt1_0KL4C&pg=PT81&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false pp.81
  96. ↑ Gonthier N., Cris de haine et rites d'unite. La violence dans la villes, 13~16 siecle, Turnhout, 1992, p141~147
  97. ↑ Quoted in Greengrass, 『The Later Wars of Religion in the French Midi』, p. 117.
  98. ↑ Orenstein, Catherine (2002) Little Red Riding Hood Uncloaked: Sex, Morality, and the Evolution of a Fairy Tale. New York: Basic Books. p. 91, ISBN 0-465-04125-6
  99. ↑ Ernest Laut, « Civilisés anthropophages », Le Petit Journal Illustré,‎ 1910
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  173. ↑ Beevor, Antony. Stalingrad: The Fateful Siege. Penguin Books. 1999. 
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  175. ↑ The Guardian, 19 April 1945, Cannibalism in Prison Camp: British Medical Officer's Visit to 『Most Horrible Place’; Toronto Daily Star, 27 September 1945,『Says cannibalism rampant at Belsen, saw 300 cases』; Daytona Beach Morning Journal, 29 September 1945, 『Cannibalism at Belsen described', as cited in O'Grada, Cormac. "Eating people is wrong: Famine's darkest secret?." Available at SSRN 2209806 (2013).
  176. ↑ 引用錯誤：無效的 <ref> 標籤，未定義名稱為 #1 的參考文獻內容文字。
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